Handouts & How-To’s

The active voice assigns more responsibility to the actor. The passive voice will shift the focus away from the actor if he/she does not want to be responsible or if it is not needed.

Key Elements:

Actor:       the “who” of the sentence
Verb:          the “action” of the sentence
Object:       the “what” of the sentence

Examples:

Active: More than half of the athletes passed their challenging classes.
Passive: The challenging classes were passed by more than half of the athletes.

Active: BP spilled 210 million gallons of oil in 2010.
Passive: 210 million gallons of oil were spilled in 2010.

Active: Dr. Jones delivered baby Emily today.
Passive: Baby Emily was delivered today.

The active voice generally makes a sentence shorter and to the point. The passive voice will make a sentence longer and wordier.

Examples:

Active: The dog bit me.
Passive: I was bitten by the dog.

Active: The student uses many unnecessary words.
Passive: A lot of unnecessary words have been used by the student.

For novels, this means FULL title and author.

If a text has more than one author, introduce them all the first time you mention the article (et. al after that)

There are exceptions to this, i.e. 20 author pieces.

The exception to this tip is when you have either A. A really long paper, and some texts aren’t used until later (say, on page 20). Those you can hold off on introducing right away. B. If you have a large number of sources and it would just overload and confuse the reader to introduce them all right away. In this situation, use discretion: which do you use first, which are the most important?

This can feel weird, why reveal everything right away? But don’t think of it like that. When we’re watching movies, we don’t want to know the end in the beginning, BUT when we’re reading papers, we do. The reader needs to know the point. What should they be expecting to get out of your essay?

A good way to determine not enough/too much information in your introduction is to compare it to your body paragraphs, both in length and in content? Does it feel like you practically wrote this body into the intro? Probably too much information.

TIP: a good “formulaic” starting place is one sentence for each body paragraph. This sentence should paraphrase or introduce the argument you’re making in that paragraph. This would not include evidence or supporting quotes. This formula, of course, does not apply to all papers (or all people). There are an infinite number of ways to structure the introduction. Another example is when a lot of background on your subject is needed. Sometimes an introduction can be a brief summative history, as long as the reader comes away understanding how said history aids your paper.

Although a thesis is usually one sentence, don’t be afraid to make it two if you need to.

The thesis needs to address the overall goal of the paper.

i.e. why are you writing the essay?

For example, if you’re writing an argumentative essay the thesis should not simply be a statement of fact, BUT for a reporting paper, it could be. The lesson here is: know your genre.

The length of the introduction should reflect the length of the paper.

If you are writing a five page paper, your introduction should be a maximum of one page. However, if you’re paper is 20 pages, you might actually need more than a page to introduce all your topics, texts, arguments, etc. In this case, don’t be afraid to have more than one paragraph as well.

Call attention to a theme or themes in a literary work.

Ex. “Form and Content in The Scarlet Letter” or “Passion and Authority in The Scarlet Letter“

Why this method?

This type of title is quicker and easier to come up with and clues the reader in to your essay’s theme(s) and argument(s) clearly and concisely.

Semicolons– Semicolons join two full sentences into one. (;)

A complete thought must be on either side of a semicolon.

Incorrect- Choosing the right punctuation mark can be difficult; with the wide variety of punctuation marks one sees in all forms of writing making the difficulty even greater.

Correct- Choosing the right punctuation mark can be difficult; the wide variety of punctuation marks one sees in all forms of writing makes this difficulty even greater.

Semicolons and colons are not interchangeable; each has its own specific use. Aside from the different purposes, there is one important grammatical difference to remember about colons: they don’t necessarily join two complete thoughts; what comes between the colon and the end of the sentence doesn’t have to be a sentence on its own.

To see if a semicolon should be used, try substituting a period in its place. If the sentences on both sides of the period still make sense on their own, the semicolon could be used (try this with all the semicolons used in this section).

Dashes– Dashes are used to mark off an extra piece of information that you want to draw extra attention to.

That extra information can come in the form of a small thought that couldn’t stand alone—like this little phrase—or a complete thought that could be its own sentence—dashes are extremely versatile in that way^[2].

Dashes can be used in the place of semicolons, colons, and some commas. Consider that the above point could have been written: “That extra information can come in the form of a small thought that couldn’t stand alone, like this little phrase, or a complete thought that could be its own sentence; dashes are extremely versatile in that way.”

However, even though dashes can be used in the place of semicolons, colons, and some commas, it’s a good idea not to overuse them. If you’re not sure if a dash is right in a certain spot, use another, more precise form of punctuation.

The “some commas” that dashes can replace are the ones that also set off extra phrases giving extra information. A good example of a place where a dash can’t be used in place of a comma is in lists.

Incorrect- Writers use many punctuation marks, including semicolons—colons—and dashes.

Correct- Writers use many punctuation marks, including semicolons, colons, and dashes.

Also Correct- Writers use many punctuations marks—including semicolons, colons, and dashes.

Make sure that any information you introduce with a dash is enclosed with a second dash and not another form of punctuation—unless the information set off by dashes comes at the end of a sentence. In that case, you can just use a period.

Incorrect- Use dashes—which are the most versatile punctuation mark, to add extra emphasis.

Correct- Use dashes—which are the most versatile punctuation mark—to add extra emphasis.

Also Correct- Use dashes, which are the most versatile punctuation mark, to add extra emphasis.

Also Correct- To add extra emphasis, use dashes—which are the most versatile punctuation mark.

Dashes (—) are not hyphens (-). Dashes are twice as long. Some word processors (like Microsoft Word) will automatically replace two hyphens (with no spaces between or on either side of them) with a dash.

^[1] http://www.quickanddirtytips.com/education/grammar/colons

^[2]http://www.quickanddirtytips.com/education/grammar/when-to-use%E2%80%94and-not-use%E2%80%94an-em-dash

How many applicants will the employer be reviewing?

• Odds are, you will be one of many. You will need to stand out!
• Find out how you can market yourself in a unique way that makes you stand out for that particular job.
• Consider length and depth of information accordingly.

What kind of organization is it?

• Do your homework about the organization.
• This will help you write in a more effective way for that specific company!
• Know their mission and how you would fit best with them.
• Understanding your audience is key.

Sentences you find in a sample resume or cover letter look copied and unimpressive.

• The reader will have seen those before.

• Write your own sentence!

• The following slide has some examples.

Strong Example

“Let me describe the marketing experience I’ve gained through course work and my
internship at ABC Enterprises.”

• This gives the readers some detail about the kind of experience you have had.

Weak Example

“My academic work combined with my hard-working attitude gives me the qualities necessary for marketing in a forward-looking organization like yours.”

• This looks as if you can send it to 100 employers.
• Not specific enough for the readers to know whether or not you are qualified enough for a position.

• Frame the objective in terms of what you can offer to the organization and to what the organization wants.
• Do not copy, do not write empty compliments, and do not convey desperation.
• Write to the needs of the opening or the spirit of the company or organization.
  • You can glean this from their website or other materials.
• The following slide has some examples.

For example, if a hospital says, “We serve the Human Spirit”

Weak Example

A position with the opportunity for advancement in marketing with a major company like ABC.

More Specific Example

1. A position In health-related marketing, where my athletic experience and proven interpersonal skills can help with product placement.
2. An internship related to economics in the Washington D.C. area, where my fluency in Arabic can help with interpretation of news media from around the world.
3. A position in communications in a health care setting, where my background in philosophy and ethics will contribute to service to the whole person.

Additional Tips

If you can’t offer fluency in Arabic or coursework in ethics, consider what you can offer:

• leadership experience
• caring attitude as shown through volunteering
• people skills gained through fundraising for your club
• or working for dining services

1. Do not copy letters or phrasing
2. Vary sentence beginnings
   • My work as a communications Intern polished my design skills; for example, when I….I use PhotoShop to….
   • The teamwork required In playing Division I sports has assisted me In many ways. For example…
   • As the chair of the cancer fundraiser, I learned much about how to motivate volunteers.
3. Vary sentence length.
4. Run a multi-syllable analysis:
   • Use both short and long sentences.
   • Too many short sentences?
     • You may not have developed your ideas from fact to example.
   • Do you always go for the long word Instead of the short one?
     • Check each long word — your potential employer will appreciate someone who writes concisely.

Read aloud

• Make sure each word has the ending it should and each sentence has the punctuation that you are adding with your oral reading.
• Read the paragraphs from the last sentence to the first.
• As you hit each sentence, ask whether it feels like a complete sentence.

Look for punctuation niceties.

• A comma after introductory phrases or clauses.
• Semicolon only to divide complete sentences or in a long list between phrases that have internal punctuation.
• Colon only after a complete sentence, not after “such as.”
• Possessives are correct.

Consider the genre:

• Find a recent business communication book to look at letters.
• Basic guidelines: centered; about 6′′ line lengths; NOT right-justified; single-spaced; uses a standard format that includes the recipient’s address justified on the left; does NOT include your name in the heading.

Emailing your letter?

• Basic guidelines: uses white space; though less formal, conforms to all conventions of readability and politeness; short paragraphs, but not too short; full sentences; no “&” or other abbreviations; crisp language; appropriate subject line.
• Write it out and send it to yourself. Revise. Reset in a new email message and send.
• Be sure to follow attachment guidelines; if none are given, consider the recipient’s capabilities and equipment. Perhaps you should send the attachment in a couple of formats.

Many of Confucius’s teachings focus on the concept that men should be obedient and respectful to their elders in order to be good men.

While this sentence makes a statement about Confucius’s teachings that can be backed up by evidence, the sentence does not make an argument analyzing why Confucius emphasizes this point nor how it is important to being good.

Confucius encourages obedience and respect for one’s elders as a way to maintain and reinforce his society’s hierarchical structure because he believes social harmony is the highest good.

• This sentence provides an argument about why Confucius focuses on obedience, and the argument would need to be backed up with relevant evidence from the text.

Putting Together an Introduction

Your introduction should consist of a common ground, destabilizing condition, and thesis/claim.

1. To start, familiarize your audience with the subject surrounding the problem or question that your claim solves; this section should include your “common ground”.

NOTE: By first thinking about the problem or question you are addressing, you will develop a more targeted and effective common ground that will lead the reader more directly toward your thesis/claim than you might have done if you jumped right into the common ground before considering the problem.

Introduce your thesis as the solution to your destabilizing condition. At this point, your common ground, destabilizing condition, and thesis should all work together to make the reader see the plausibility and significance of the argument you will make in your essay.

After establishing your common ground, raise the problem or question that emerges (which your claim will have to address); this section is your destabilizing condition because you are destabilizing your common ground so that your thesis/claim can address the problem or question that you raise.

Common Ground: In Toni Morrison’s novel Beloved, the protagonist, a fugitive slave, takes the life of her own baby rather than surrender her to perpetual enslavement. Destabilizing Condition: As Ahab, Medea, Hamlet and others always remind us, literature, like life, is full of difficult choices. Thesis: Choosing a preparation book for the AP exams in English Literature and Language is also no easy matter…

In this case, the common ground was way too specific for the thesis — the lack of connection between the three parts results in confusion for the reader and insignificance for the topic.

Common Ground: Most high school students that take AP classes do so with the aim of scoring high on the AP test and compiling credit for college courses. Destabilizing Condition: However, studying for the AP test is often a struggle, especially when students are faced with choosing from among the many preparation books (which are often overpriced and unproven) for the AP examinations in English Literature and Language. Thesis: Luckily, the relatively cheap preparation guides published by Super Tutors are also the best option for most students, because they are easy to use and have an established track record of improving student scores.

• Here, the common ground is directly tied to the claim and the destabilizing condition, which helps all three elements work together to introduce the argument and give it significance.

^[1] They Say, I Say is golden advice! This text is a standard resource in the CC Freshman Program and beyond — feel free to consult it on further advice for setting up an argument, incorporating evidence and quotes, and much more!

A topic sentence should state the point/claim you make in your paragraph

Example: Carroll uses Alice’s conversation with the Cheshire Cat about madness both to explain the world of Wonderland and critique a Victorian emphasis on facts and reason.

A topic sentence should not be description, summary, or general background information

Example: In Alice in Wonderland, Alice has a conversation with the Cheshire Cat about madness.

Each topic sentence should say why/how the content of the paragraph matters to your overall argument

e., If your thesis claims that Alice in Wonderland critiques Victorian education for children by doing x and also y, every topic sentence of each of your body paragraphs should have to relate to Victorian education and x and/or y.

If your paragraph doesn’t relate to your thesis, consider incorporating it into another one, or cutting it out entirely

e., you might want to talk about the White Hare as a symbol for Victorian obsession with time. However, if your paper as a whole is otherwise about passages/paragraphs that critique Victorian education, then it is out of place, and will only confuse your paper’s focus.

Transitions should be used to mark a connection/opposition between a previous point and your current one

Connection:

Paragraph A: talks about Alice’s encounter with the caterpillar

Transition to Paragraph B: Similarly, Alice encounters another strange creature in the form of the Cheshire Cat, with whom, like the caterpillar, she holds a conversation with larger implications for the world of the novel.

Opposition:

Paragraph A: details how the madness of Wonderland critiques the fact-based Victorian England

Transition to Paragraph B: Despite the nature of madness and this criticism of facts and order, there is a kind of logic to Wonderland, and it is deliberately inversive.

NB: These are only two examples of how to involve transitions in your paper; there are many other ways to do so. But no matter what transition you use, it should in some way establish a relationship between a previous point in your essay and the one you’re about to talk about.

Many issues that might hamper flow are small/general enough that you can catch them just by proofreading–i.e., sentence fragments, clunky/lengthy sentences, etc.

Reading your paper out loud is especially helpful for catching awkward phrases/sentences

Hellos, goodbyes, every day redundancies are implied. Don’t waste your time–or your reader’s–going through all the hellos, goodbyes, and I love yous. This applies to ums, uhs, likes, etc. No one wants to read that. These parts of speech have their place, absolutely, but don’t crowd your dialogue with them because you think it will sound more natural or authentic.

It seems like no big deal, but punctuation can change the way a line reads. Its adds and takes away emphasis. First, you should know how to use your punctuation correctly, but once you have a good grasp, play around with it. Here’s an example: “Stop…” versus “Stop!” Moving commas and periods around changes the way a line reads just as much as ending punctuation does.   Here’s another example: “Get. Away. From. Me.” versus “Get away from me!” The use of periods between each word implies a very intentional force. The reader isn’t thinking these observations consciously in their mind, but they will read it differently if you change the punctuation.

Go observe a conversation and take note of how many times someone interrupts someone else. It might seem rude, but that’s just how conversation works, it means all the parties involved are engaged in what’s happening. Characters can interrupt for an array of reasons including: disagreement with the speaker, a sense of urgency, feeling they already know what the character is going to say, excitement. The list goes on. Interruptions also keep your dialogue quick, and the reader will wonder how 50 pages flew by. Interruptions can additionally be useful for a change of subject, scene transition, and giving adequate “page time” to each of your characters. Interruptions can also be used to illustrate power dynamics, gender dynamics, age dynamics, you name it. The more characters you have, the more interruptions there should be.

This is important both to the exposition and to action. It’s tempting to have your characters tell the audience the whole backstory. But it’s too convenient. Give your readers some credit, if you do it because it’s easy, they will know. Along the same lines, they don’t want to know everything all at once. Mystery is great. Your character might allude to events from their past but not outright state what they’re referring to: “Remember what happened to Dan last month?” “Oh, yes. Poor thing.” Your readers will keep reading to find out what happened to Dan, so down the line when you reveal what it is, they will feel satisfied, and hopefully, come to understand your story better in some way. You may also have your characters refer to a person or a place frequently, like, “The Lake” and every character knows what they’re talking about, but the reader doesn’t. Use that to your advantage. The easy guess is that “The Lake” is a lake, but what if it’s an underground fight club? That draws the reader in. As for action, it’s pretty simple. A character doesn’t need to say, “I’m going to cut the ham and make a sandwich” and then they cut the ham and make a sandwich. Actions speak louder than words.

By this, I mean use subtext! Oftentimes people won’t say what they really mean, but they will imply it. A character might want to say “I love you,” but a lot of people are allergic to “I love you”. Instead, they might say, “I made you dinner.” It shows they care. Or maybe, “That song came on the radio today and it made me think of you.” Or, “Don’t leave, please.” The dialogue underneath is way more interesting than what is on the surface. In real life people hardly ever say what they mean, so why should your characters, right? When does, “Fine” ever mean fine? Not saying something can also apply to silence. Sometimes saying the wrong thing is great, but sometimes saying nothing is better.

It may sound dumb but do it. Just read your dialogue aloud to yourself (it’s actually beneficial to read all your writing aloud). The best way to tell if something sounds unnatural is to see how it feels in your mouth. Even better, have a friend read it aloud to you (or a tutor in the writing center!). Then you get to hear it and see if there are places where your reader stumbles or where something just isn’t working.

• Summarize existing research on a given topic.
• Describe the existing stances scholars have taken in the research surrounding the question/topic.
• What key questions have scholars already asked?
• What are the different positions they have taken andwhy?
• Assess how complete and reliable existing research on the topic is.
• What limitations are present in the pre-existing research that you may want to answer in a future research paper?

• This may come in the form of a statement or a question.
  • Ex. The Effects of Aerosols on the Ozone Layer/How have aerosols impacted the ozone layer?
• It is important to find a topic in your given field that you are personally interested in so that your paper reflects a passionate overview of the subject. Consider something you could easily want to turn into a future thesis or dissertation.
• To aid in this, you may want to peruse through some literature in your field and then construct a topic from your findings (including previously published literature reviews!).

• A research topic should be detailed. Too broad of a topic may overwhelm the reader with the amount of currently available research and make it more difficult to keep your paper focused.
  • Ex. What influences voting behaviors in American adults? (This is very generalizable and lots of research has been done on it. You might want to focus your topic on a certain group/party/demographic, etc.).
• On the opposite end, a topic should not be so vague and niche that no previous scholarly research exists on it.
  • Ex. The Health of Calico Cats in American Inner-Cities (Completely made up, but there are many details to keep track of, which may make finding adequate research difficult).

• Current peer-reviewed literature can be acquired through a variety of resources: Libraries (especially for published books)
• Online databases (JSTOR, Google Scholar, etc.)
• Journals Make sure to find literature with authors that cover the same topic but vary in their opinions or research findings. These will help you identify schools of thought.
• If a piece of literature has weaknesses or drawbacks, make sure to keep these in mind for when you address the current literature’s limitations.
• Keeping a research journal of the sources you have found will help you organize your schools of thought and make it easier to write the paper later! (even if you don’t end up using all the sources)

This is all dependent on the field/format/instructor you are writing for, but this is how a literature review is typically structured:

• Introduction—Importance of topic
• Schools of Thought/Different Takes on Topic
• Limitations (can also be interwoven within schools of thought)
• Conclusion—Importance of current research/question to expand on

• The introduction to your literature review will be similar to that of any other essay, but has much more of a focus on your research topic/question.
• The pyramid on the right is a good graph of how to structure any paper. Literature reviews are more specific though:
• Start off with the background/context about your topic/question.
• Make a structured statement about your topic.
• At the end of your introduction, put a small transition sentence about the importance of this literature to your topic, but you will expand on this in your conclusion.

• After thoroughly analyzing the literature you have found, you will want to point out the findings/arguments of the current research in the body paragraphs of your literature review.
• Each body paragraph should outline either a trend that appears among the literature or represent a particular school of thought (or argument).
• You will want to describe the distinct points made by each author to your audience without merely summarizing the author’s work. A literature review is not a book report; it’s an analysis of the scholarly research on your topic.
• To emphasize this point, you will want to make sure to compare and contrast the points/research done by each of the scholars, especially those that are categorized under the same school of thought.
• By the end of your literature review, your audience should have a comprehensive understanding of each author’s point, each school of thought that you have delineated, and a thorough overview of how different scholars have approached the same topic.

• To illustrate the research process, view each scholarly article as representing a singular piece in the puzzle that is the overall knowledge of your topic.
• Each piece of literature has limitations, which leaves missing pieces (or gaps) in the research. Pointing these out will lead to further research (possibly your own!) that could fill these holes in the puzzle.
• These gaps should be pointed out either within the schools of thought section or in
  its own paragraph.
• Limitations can include, but are not limited to:
  • Author credentials
  • Age of literature
  • Lack of replicability in study methods

Author credentials

• Look up the author’s names to see if they are qualified to write or do research in your field!

Age of literature

• Check when your literature was published. If most of your literature has not been published in the last 10-20 years, that should be acknowledged as a limitation in your paper because research should be a constantly ongoing process.

Credibility

• All your literature should be peer-reviewed, but you should always take precautions and search to see if any of the literature has been discredited, disproven, or updated with new data.

Lack of Replicability

• If a scholar’s methods seem too complicated,
• inhumane, or vague to exactly replicate their
• results, you should mention it.

• It is worth searching to see if other scholars have tried to replicated the studies you are analyzing and note if they consistently acquired different results.

Research Bias

• Do any of your articles seem to elevate the author’s opinion and/or not adequately address counterarguments or other opinions? If not, it would be worth noting in your paper.
• For studies, one should always assess if the influence of funders could skew its
  results/opinions.

In some fields, scholars will have a section of their paper dedicated to the study’s limitations near the conclusion. Make sure to note any of these self-identified drawbacks!

• The beginning of the conclusion should explain why this research is important to your topic.
• Using the categories and the limitations you have found within the literature, your conclusion should point out what direction(s) future research should take.
• This could be the research you are planning on conducting yourself and/or something you think is important for scholars to figure out.
• Your conclusion should end by answering why it is imperative for research to continue in the direction that you have proposed.

Depending on the instructor, you may be asked to attach the abstract of your topic to the paper. Make sure your abstract and the topic of your literature review align (especially if the abstract was completed before you cemented your topic choice).

Make sure your literature is in the proper format as requested by your instructor if your research is for a class (APA, Chicago, MLA, etc.).

Instructors and librarians that specialize in your field are also great resources to use if you need further assistance with finding literature on your topic!

The Writing Center is happy to help you at any point in this process, from formulating a research topic to proofreading drafts, so do not hesitate to reach out to us.

Education Department at the University of Minnesota Duluth, “Guidelines for writing a literature review” – https://www.d.umn.edu/~hrallis/guides/researching/litreview.html

University of California Santa Cruz University Library, “Write a Literature Review” https://guides.library.ucsc.edu/write-a-literature-review

University of Southern California Libraries, “Limitations of the Study”- https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/limitations

US National Library of Medicine, “Ten Simple Rules for Writing a Literature Review” –
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3715443/